India’s cotton exports could threaten Maharashtra’s groundwater

On a bright November morning last year, Anil Bhauraji Sarade sat by the fading blue walls of his farm’s well in Amravati, Maharashtra, watching his cotton field, the economic lifeline of his family. His eight-acre (3.2-hectare) farm, which he co-owns with his two brothers, grows multiple crops, but the majority is cotton. He was worried that the previous season’s excess rainfall and subsequent pest outbreak would threaten his crop yield.

He was also haunted by the memories of a previous drought and recalled a desperate attempt to save his cotton when poor rainfall nearly dried up his 50-feet well. In 2017-18, despite spending a stressful fortnight deepening the well to 60 feet, he found no water. It slashed his cotton yields by 75% and he lost ₹200,000. The financial strain after the drought forced his family to make big sacrifices, from living on bare minimum to resorting to a court wedding for one of the brothers.

The situation has since improved but he is still unsure what he will do if another drought happens again. As a cotton farmer in Maharashtra, a leading cotton-producing state, he faces a dwindling income. At the same time, India’s cotton exports are raising critical sustainability questions. The country is exporting cotton but depleting groundwater resources and potentially threatening food security in water-scarce regions.

Cotton is one of India’s top agricultural exports and an important foreign revenue source. However, it is increasingly putting pressure on Maharashtra’s groundwater. Despite debates about rainfed versus irrigated cultivation, data reveals Yavatmal and Amravati – the second- and fifth-highest cotton-producing districts – have seen a 14% and 19% increase in groundwater extraction rates between 2013-14 and 2022-23.

This six-month investigation involved extensive research and analysing data from the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare (MoAFW), parliamentary records, UN Comtrade, and ground reporting in Amravati.

The findings reveal that India’s cotton exports between 2011-12 and 2020-21 consumed over 40 trillion litres of water. Also, one in every 10 groundwater assessment units in Maharashtra’s top five cotton-producing districts was categorised as “critical” or “overexploited” by the CGWB. Out of these five districts, Amravati and Jalgaon extracted over 90% and 79% of their available groundwater, respectively in 2023.

A 2024 study on cotton production and its water footprint showed that between 2014 and 2018, India topped the list of countries with unsustainable ‘blue water’ footprint, after more than doubling its contribution. Blue water includes groundwater, which refers to the freshwater stored in underground aquifers and wells, in addition to surface water from rivers and lakes. During the same period, India was the second largest producer of cotton globally. India alone is responsible for more than a third – 38% – of the total global water used for cotton production.

Export cotton’s water footprint

India produced 295 million cotton bales between 2013-14 and 2022-23. Based on cotton’s export volume and its blue water footprint calculated in a 2010 study, the estimates suggest that India’s cotton exports between 2011-12 and 2020-21 utilised over 40 trillion litres of water. This volume is nearly seven times the water stored in the Sardar Sarovar Dam, which serves about 30 million people across four states in India.

The top importers of India’s cotton between 2014 and 2023 were Bangladesh, followed by China, Vietnam, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Bangladesh purchased over a quarter of India’s cotton exports while the top three countries bought more than half.

Cotton occupied a significant place in India’s exports and economy between 2011-12 and 2020-21, ranking as the 11^th and sixth highest agricultural export by weight and monetary volume, respectively. Cotton yarn, the top cotton product with the highest export value, brought in $77 billion between 2014 and 2023.

Read more: Government report highlights groundwater contamination across India

Maharashtra, a leading producer

Maharashtra ranks second in cotton production nationally as of 2022-23, following Gujarat. Maharashtra contributed a quarter of India’s total cotton production over the decade between 2013-14 and 2022-23.

Between 2020-21 and 2022-23, cotton cultivation covered 13.1 million hectares in the state, second only to soybean’s 13.8 million hectares, but had a higher production volume. Jalgaon, Yavatmal, Aurangabad, Wardha, and Amravati emerged as the top five cotton-producing districts, collectively accounting for nearly half of the state’s output.

Maharashtra produced 73 million bales of cotton from 2013-14 to 2022-23, with each bale weighing 170 kilograms. “Cotton is a guaranteed crop which grows in our farms no matter what. If it rains less, the harvest reduces but it always yields something,” said Subhash Bhimraoji Bhuyar, who owns a 12-acre (4.8 hectare) farm in Ladki, a village in Amravati.

“Only 3% of the area of cotton is under irrigation in Maharashtra and the rest is mostly grown in kharif season under rainfed condition,” said A.L. Waghmare, Director, Directorate of Cotton Development, MoAFW, in an email response to Mongabay India. He also added that cotton uses 650-1,000 mm of water in different locations.

However, knowing how much cotton is rainfed, irrigated or partially irrigated is nuanced, said Dinesh Kumar, a water resource management specialist, who co-authored a 2019 study on cotton’s water footprint in Maharashtra and Gujarat. Farmers dynamically switch between rainfed and irrigated methods based on annual rainfall variability, he explained.

The cotton variety and growing period further decide its water usage. This also means the yield fluctuates with water availability, making it challenging to definitively categorise farms as rainfed or irrigated, he added.

Groundwater resources under threat

Sarade describes groundwater scarcity as “a big problem”. Growing a kilogram of cotton needs 1,534 litres of blue water in Maharashtra – an amount that could supply five to six rural Indian households daily. While less water-intensive than sugarcane, cotton contributes to unsustainable virtual water trade, especially in water-scarce regions.

Yet the practice persists, because groundwater is treated as individual property rather than a shared resource, said Suresh Kulkarni, an independent micro-irrigation expert. “Groundwater is like a bank account used during emergencies,” he said. “It’s a highly protected source with no evaporation or theft but it’s not in the public domain.”

Jalgaon, Yavatmal, Aurangabad, Wardha and Amravati are the top five cotton-producing districts in Maharashtra. Amravati, the fifth highest district in terms of cotton production, extracted over 90% of available groundwater in 2023, the highest in Maharashtra. Jalgaon, the top cotton producer, extracted nearly 79%. Aurangabad, the third highest cotton producer, extracted 72%.

While these rates include usage for all sectors including agriculture, industry and domestic use, CGWB statistics also show irrigation is a key reason for such high levels of groundwater extraction. In 2023, 93% of groundwater extracted by these districts flowed towards irrigating their fields. Jalgaon, the top cotton producer, consistently ranked in the top five for total groundwater extracted for irrigation from 2017 to 2023.

Experts that Mongabay India spoke to, define a ‘groundwater assessment unit’ in Maharashtra as a well or watershed where the state monitors groundwater at the block level. In 2023, one in every 10 units in Maharashtra’s top five cotton-producing districts – Jalgaon, Yavatmal, Aurangabad, Wardha and Amravati were either categorised as “critical” or “overexploited” by the CGWB. In these districts, more than 90% of the groundwater reserves were being extracted every year. This is double the percentage of such units in the rest of the state.

Amravati saw a 19% increase in the stage of groundwater extraction between 2013-14 and 2022-23, from extracting three quarters of available groundwater annually to over 90%. Yavatmal, on the other hand, saw a 14% increase but remains at safe levels of extraction, drawing only over a third of its available groundwater by 2022-23.

Sunil Gopalrao Tayade, a third-generation cotton farmer from Ghatladki, a village in Amravati, uses flood irrigation for his two-and-a-half-acre (1.01 hectare) farm. He noted the dramatic change: “Earlier, one out of ten people had a well. Now, people have smaller farms and everyone has dug wells or borewells.” While they lack precise measurements, farmers have observed a visible decline in water level.

Four out of the top five cotton producing districts in Maharashtra extracted a larger portion of available groundwater in 2023 than they did in 2013, according to CGWB. Yavatmal and Amravati, the top second and fifth producers, are the leading districts where extraction is increasing.

“Cotton is not profitable or sustainable in terms of water,” said Vishwanath Todkar, secretary of Paryay, a non-profit focused on farmer livelihoods in Marathwada, a drought-prone region in Maharashtra. If farmers want to grow cotton here, the only alternative is borewells, he explained.

Other factors contributing to groundwater depletion

Kumar’s study revealed another concerning practice – farmers often extend short duration cotton’s growing period by watering beyond its 180-day cycle to increase yields. “There is a disproportionate use of water in relation to yield,” he said. When genetic yield potential is surpassed, yield diminishes, and the water footprint increases, he explained.

“There is a lack of extension advice on water application,” said Suresh, noting that farmers using flood irrigation often use two or three times the water actually needed.

All the farmers Mongabay India spoke to said recent monsoons brought ample rain after years of dry spells, so there is sufficient water in their wells. However, the general trend over the past decade or two shows a continuous decrease in water levels, they added.

Sunil Mahadeorao Bhadke uses both rainfed and flood irrigation on his 12-acre (4.8 hectare) farm in Akhatwada village in Amravati. In 22 years of farming, he has noticed the well water reducing. “If it rains well, everyone turns on their pumps and the groundwater decreases quickly,” he said.

While a good, sustained rainfall increases groundwater stocks in aquifers, high groundwater withdrawal for cash crops can lead to gradual depletion. Given the hydraulic connectivity of aquifers, groundwater over-extraction in one area can result in reduced availability in adjoining areas, explained Renie Thomas, an independent hydrogeologist.

Increasing the number of pumping borewells in an area induces a local drawdown, resulting in low water levels in wells due to simultaneous groundwater withdrawal, said Thomas. “When several farms operate borewells at varying depths simultaneously, particularly when power supply is turned on, the cumulative pumping causes a rapid regional decline in groundwater levels. The recovery of groundwater levels dominated by hard rock is especially low due to limited aquifer storage and low permeability,” he said, noting that 81% of Maharashtra is hard rock basalt.

Bhadke uses a sprinkler set he got through a government scheme in 2010-11 for cotton seedlings occasionally and mostly for soy or Bengal gram. “It’s still working but not in full capacity. I have repaired it but it’s too old,” he said. Delayed subsidy payments kept him from re-applying for a sprinkler and his application for a subsidised drip system under the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) was unsuccessful.

He has observed that farmers no longer leave land fallow between cropping seasons. Good rainfall brings up water levels in wells and creates a perception of abundance, leading to continuous sowing. Farmers also sow successive crops without checking well water levels since farming is their only livelihood. Both situations contribute to groundwater shortage, he explained.

Infrastructural issues such as night-time power supply further exacerbate groundwater depletion in Maharashtra. “The government supplies power only at night from 11 p.m. to 6 a.m. for five days a week… People go to the farm at night and turn on the motor for irrigation. The water flows all night and gets wasted,” said Bhadke, talking about the villages in Amravati’s Morshi and Chandurbazar blocks.

Is drip irrigation a potential solution?

Drip irrigation can save up to half the amount of water typically used for growing cotton, but it is not a panacea. Sarade applied for a drip system under a government scheme but was unsuccessful. Even if he was successful, he admits he would struggle with upfront costs. “They [the government] will release the subsidy in their own time. There’s no guarantee. People are upset,” said Sarade, who now seeks a bank loan specifically for micro-irrigation.

Suresh Kulkarni identifies three bottlenecks in the promotion of drip irrigation – delayed disbursal of subsidies, bureaucratic hurdles and inadequate extension services. He said there is no evaluation on the schemes’ effectiveness. “I have never seen somebody ask how they are performing, what the yield is and how much water and electricity are saved,” he said.

Kumar’s study however found that water savings from drip irrigation are minimal, often less than 10%, he said.

Between 2015-16 and 2023-24, Maharashtra expanded micro-irrigation to 1.3 million hectares, averaging 150,000 hectares of new coverage annually. The area under micro-irrigation has mostly increased during this nine-year period.

Bhuyar’s experience shows the benefits of switching to micro irrigation. After installing a drip irrigation system with a 50% subsidy in 2017-18, he increased his cotton production by 20-25%. He expanded drip irrigation from two to five acres (from 0.8 hectares to 2.02 hectares) after initial success. In 2025, he harvested 45 quintals of cotton from four acres (1.6 hectares), compared to 50-60 quintals from 10 acres previously (4.04 hectares).

However, recent studies also bring to light the disadvantages of micro irrigation. A 2024 study conducted in four states in India including Maharashtra, found it (drip irrigation) can increase water use, with farmers expanding irrigated crop areas and shifting to water-intensive crops, potentially offsetting water savings.

Experts say when farmers increase the area under micro irrigation, they also deprive other farmers of groundwater. “In the flood irrigated area, what we call a loss [of water] goes to the aquifer. It is used by some other farms downstream. If you use a drip and sprinkler, there is no deep percolation. That deprives other farmers downstream,” said Suresh.

Inequity between large and small landholders is also a concern. Todkar says that large landholders exploit groundwater and government schemes. “They dig five borewells, collect water in one well and farm 15-20 acres (6.07 to 8.09 hectares) with it. They even split their land to access government schemes,” he said. This systemic advantage impacts small and vulnerable farmers from Dalit and Bahujan communities, who struggle with low literacy and access to government schemes, he explained.

Approaches to replenish groundwater

Himanshu Kulkarni, former director at Advanced Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (ACWADAM), states that India needs to better understand its aquifers.

Current watershed conservation programmes, which divert runoff water from farms back into the ground, overlook water quality, he said. India needs a strategic groundwater recharge programme that uses the most suitable technology to plan, manage and regulate the demand for groundwater. This approach requires broader, systemic changes in agricultural markets and policies to ensure farmers switching to less thirsty crops that can maintain their income, he said.

Meanwhile Suresh Kulkarni suggests creating a farm-level groundwater monitoring through water meters and prepaid irrigation cards, similar to the ones in China and Bangladesh. In China, farmers use prepaid smart cards to access groundwater, inserting them into controllers installed on wells that track groundwater usage and automatically report this data to water management authorities. In the Barind region of Bangladesh, farmers use similar cards to pump groundwater for irrigation, creating an effective way to control and manage groundwater usage.

Thomas notes that while various organisations in Maharashtra are working on water conservation at farm and watershed levels, there is a need for a sustainable collaboration among farmers, institutions, and government to ensure community-based knowledge is accessible and implement context specific adaptive water management interventions.

If groundwater shortages reoccur, Sarade plans to reduce his cotton cultivation area. “The government doesn’t solve problems. The farmers will have to solve it,” he said.

However, other cotton farmers are considering a combination of solutions. Bhadke says that Akhatwada can manage groundwater by reducing cotton cultivation and adopting drip irrigation, calling on the government to suggest alternate crops and provide seeds.

Limitation: The 40 trillion litres of water consumed in India’s cotton exports is a crude estimate based on multiplying the volume of India’s cotton exports from the Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2022 and the MoAFW data, with the blue water footprint of cotton in Maharashtra from the UNESCO-IHE data.

Methodology: The author accessed public data from the following institutions and government bodies:

1. National Compilation on Dynamic Ground Water Resources of India, Central Ground Water Board, Government of India (GOI) – groundwater extraction at the district and block level in Maharashtra
2. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare (MoAFW), GOI – area, production and yield of cotton in India, state-wise and district-wise in Maharashtra
3. Economic Survey of Maharashtra 2023-24, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Planning Department, Government of Maharashtra – area, production and yield of cotton and other crops in the state
4. Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2022, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers’ Welfare, MoAFW, GOI – India’s exports of agricultural commodities
5. Mekonnen, M.M. and Hoekstra, A.Y. (2010) The green, blue and grey water footprint of crops and derived crop products, Value of Water Research Report Series No. 47, UNESCO-IHE, Delft, the Netherlands – water footprint of cotton in Maharashtra, India and the world
6. UN Comtrade, an online platform for global trade data – India’s cotton exports and imports to and from other countries
7. Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) website – Table on annual state-wise area covered under microirrigation under PMKSY from 2015-16 and 2023-24
8. Lok Sabha reply provided by Arjun Munda in 2024 which includes state-wise microirrigation data from 2015-16 to 2023-24
9. Lok Sabha reply provided by Narendra Singh Tomar in 2021 which includes state-wise area covered under micro irrigation (drip and sprinkler) from 2005-06 to 2020-21

In addition to data analysis, the author conducted field reporting and interviews with experts.

After the relevant datasets were downloaded from the above websites, the data was cleaned and reorganised for analysis in a Google Sheet called a data doc. Each data doc contains formulas similar to Microsoft Excel which helped the author arrive at the results. The documents also have a tab called “data diary”, which outlines the steps followed in the data analysis. Readers can replicate the steps in the data diary to verify the findings.

List of data documents:

1. [Data Doc]_Vandana K_Cotton Production in India, State-Wise
2. [Data Doc]_Vandana K_Area, production & yield of crops (Economic Survey of Maharashtra)
3. [Data Doc]_Vandana K_District-wise Cotton Production in Maharashtra
4. [Data doc]_Vandana K_ Water footprint of cotton in India, state-wise
5. [Data Doc]_Vandana K_India’s Cotton Production Volume
6. [Data Doc]_Vandana K_India’s Cotton Exports 2016-17 to 2020-21
7. [Data Doc]_Vandana K_ Comparison of Cotton Yield & Production in Maharashtra & Other States
8. Vandana K_[Data doc] Groundwater extraction level, district-wise
9. Vandana K_[Data doc] District-Wise Categorization of Blocks/Mandals/Taluks in India 2013-2023
10. [Data doc]_Vandana K_ Virtual Water Export of Cotton from India
11. [Data Doc]_Vandana K_India’s Cotton Exports 2011-12 to 2020-21
12.  [Data Doc]_Vandana K_India’s Cotton Exports_UN Comtrade
13. Vandana K_[Data doc] Percentage of water saved & Area under drip & sprinkler in Maharashtra 2005-06 to 2020-21
14. Vandana K_[Data doc] Microirrigation area & percentage under PDMC 2015-16 to 2023-24 &, state-wise
15. Vandana K_ [Data doc] Area under Micro-irrigation, district-wise 2015-2024

Reporting for this story was supported by the Environmental Data Journalism Academy, a programme of Internews’ Earth Journalism Network and Thibi.

This story was a result of collaboration between the author and mentors from Internews and Thibi, namely, Lu Min Lwin, Thin Lei Win, and Nihar Gokhale.

Banner image: Sunil Mahadeorao Bhadke, who uses both rainfed and flood irrigation on his 12-acre cotton farm in Akhatwada village in Amravati district, Maharashtra, has noticed the well water reducing. Image by Vandana K/Mongabay.