- The International Court of Justice has issued a landmark advisory opinion affirming legal obligations of nations under global law to combat climate change and uphold climate justice.
- The advisory emphasises that wealthy, high-emitting countries must lead emissions reductions and provide reparations for climate harm, strengthening legal grounds for vulnerable nations.
- India now faces increased expectations to balance its developmental needs with strengthened climate action, judicial enforcement, and leveraging international finance and technology transfer in line with the advisory’s principles.
In a decision that could reshape the global fight against climate change, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) issued an advisory opinion on July 23, establishing the legal obligations of all countries to combat global warming. The advisory, prompted by a historic campaign by Pacific Island nations and supported by more than a hundred countries, marks an unprecedented framing of climate protection as a duty in light of international law.
The advisory opinion carries far-reaching implications for governments, corporations, and international institutions worldwide, especially as global leaders prepare for the annual United Nations climate summit in Brazil later this year.
The opinion of the highest judicial body of the United Nations (U.N.) comes amid escalating climate emergencies and mounting demands for justice from the most vulnerable nations. The court emphasised that the failure to act on climate change may constitute an internationally wrongful act, underscoring that states must not only reduce their emissions but also regulate private actors contributing to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions within their jurisdictions.
The advisory draws on environmental treaties, such as the Paris Agreement, but anchors those obligations more broadly in customary international law, the duty to prevent transboundary harm, and fundamental human rights. It positions a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment as a foundational human right, essential for the enjoyment of all others.
“The world’s highest court has made it clear: climate-harming activities violate international law and people’s rights,” Elisa Morgera, UN special rapporteur on climate change and human rights, said in a statement. “Governments must cut emissions to protect people’s lives, and they must provide redress for the damage they’ve already caused.”
Legal redress
“If states have legal duties to prevent climate harm, then victims of that harm have a right to redress,” Sebastien Duyck, senior attorney at the Washington D.C.-based Center for International Environmental Law, said in a statement to the media. “In this way, the ICJ advisory opinion does not only clarify existing rules, it creates legal momentum. It reshapes what is now considered legally possible, actionable, and ultimately enforceable.”
“The decision of the ICJ, though advisory in nature, is the first significant acknowledgement that the destruction of the climate system should not go on without any legal consequences,” said Ritwick Dutta, environmental lawyer and managing trustee of the New Delhi-based Legal Initiative for Forest and Environment (LIFE).
For the Pacific Island nations that instigated this case, the advisory offers legal validation for their decades-long struggle to secure justice as they face rising seas and devastating storms. The advisory recognises that responsibility for climate harm falls predominantly on high-income, historically high-emitting countries, which must lead in cutting emissions and providing financial and technological support to vulnerable states.
This advisory opinion transforms climate action from a voluntary political commitment into a binding legal duty. It holds states accountable for failing to meet climate commitments, establishing that such inaction may trigger legal consequences, including cessation of harmful activities, guarantees against repetition, and reparations that could potentially involve compensation or restoration to affected communities.
“The era of impunity is over,” said Tasneem Essop, executive director of the Climate Action Network International, an advocacy group. “Governments and corporations now face clearly defined legal obligations to prevent the climate catastrophe and make reparations for decades of reckless pollution.”
Released just months before the Brazil climate conference, the declaration by the ICJ strengthens vulnerable states’ hand in global negotiations. It lends legal credence to demands for enhanced nationally determined contributions, the scaling up of finance for loss and damage, and the acceleration of fossil fuel phaseouts. The court’s emphasis on regulating private actors also shines a spotlight on corporate liability for emissions, giving new momentum to climate litigation worldwide, which already numbers in the thousands.
The advisory opinion marks a watershed moment in the fight for climate justice, said Harjeet Singh, climate activist and founding director of Satat Sampada Climate Foundation. “This landmark decision unequivocally imposes robust obligations on states to compel fossil fuel producers to take drastic and immediate action, holding them categorically responsible for the damage they’ve unleashed,” Singh said. “The court’s findings pave the way for full reparations, meaning polluters must not only cease their harmful actions but also provide financial compensation for losses and damages incurred.”
Yet, the advisory is not without challenges. Though morally and politically weighty, advisory opinions are not legally binding, and enforcement mechanisms remain limited. Major emitters, such as the United States, China, and Saudi Arabia, resisted broader obligations during the proceedings and may attempt to mitigate the advisory’s impact politically. Also, proving direct causation between specific state actions and climate harm is technically complex.
Indian perspective
Against this global legal backdrop, India’s role is nuanced and significant. The country stands at a crossroads in climate governance, occupying a unique position as both the world’s third-largest emitter and a nation highly vulnerable to climate impacts, such as heatwaves, droughts, and floods, which affect millions.
During the court proceedings, India reinforced the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, emphasising that international climate obligations must take into account historical emissions and developmental needs. India also underscored the primacy of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to avoid parallel legal regimes that might complicate implementation and development priorities. On fossil fuel subsidies, India maintained that “states have no specific obligations under international law to reduce or eliminate fossil fuel subsidies,” reflecting its high reliance on coal and hydrocarbons to ensure energy security.
The advisory opinion intensifies expectations for India on several fronts. Its proactive judiciary, already a significant force in environmental governance through Article 21 of the Indian Constitution that ensures the right to life and a healthy environment, may draw on the ICJ advisory to demand stronger enforcement of environmental rights and pollution controls. This could accelerate judicial activism in climate cases, propelling demand for effective policy responses.
“India’s domestic law does not take into consideration climate change. The environmental laws are pollution focussed,” Dutta pointed out. “There is a need to review the laws so that the liability not just on greenhouse gas emitters, but also on all those who impact the climate system are made accountable for their action.”
The opinion could pave the way for legislative momentum toward comprehensive climate laws in India, incorporating principles such as intergenerational equity, environmental justice, and carbon budgeting. Until now, India has lacked such binding domestic legislation, and the ICJ’s articulation of legal duties may galvanise renewed political will to bridge that gap.
The advisory, however, strengthens India’s claims for increased international climate finance and technology transfer, recognising its dual role as a vulnerable country with major emission responsibilities. The obligation of developed countries to support mitigation and adaptation efforts in nations like India gains further legitimacy through the advisory.
Setting the precedent for climate justice
Internationally, the ICJ advisory sets a precedent for courts, governments, and activists alike. It signals a new era where the climate crisis is inseparable from legal accountability. Climate litigation, already flourishing, is likely to incorporate this authoritative opinion as a reference point across jurisdictions. International climate diplomacy will also evolve under this new tectonic plate of legal obligation.
The advisory sharpens the focus on loss and damage, a long-contested issue at the U.N. climate negotiations. It opines that reparations for climate-related harms are not just a matter of political goodwill, but are also legally mandated. This framework could push reluctant wealthy countries to honour and mobilise financing for those already suffering catastrophic climate effects, or face legal and diplomatic consequences.
“For communities on the frontlines, those who have contributed the least to this crisis yet suffer its most brutal impacts, this advisory offers a historic level of protection,” said Singh. “It means the suffering, the loss of homes and livelihoods, and the terrifying storms and rising seas that have become our reality can now be met with demands for justice, restitution, and repair.”
However, enforcing these new legal norms will require persistent efforts by civil society, vulnerable countries, and progressive governments. The ICJ’s advisory opinion marks a turning point. Climate change is no longer a question of political will alone, but a matter of international legal obligation and justice.
For vulnerable island states and frontline communities, the advisory offers hope for justice and reparations that have been long denied. For major emitters, including India, it raises the bar, demanding credible, immediate, and equitable climate action.
Banner image: Activists demonstrate outside The Peace Palace, which houses the International Court of Justice, ahead of the advisory opinion issued on July 23, in The Hague, Netherlands. (AP Photo/Peter Dejong)
